An example of a Li-ion battery (used in the mobile phone) 100–265 / (0.36–0.875 MJ/kg) 250–693 / (0.90–2.43 MJ/L) ~ 250-~340 W/kg Charge/discharge efficiency 80–90% Energy/consumer-price 2.5 / Self-discharge rate 2% per month Cycle durability 400–1200 Nominal cell voltage NMC 3.6 / 3.85, LiFePO4 3.2 A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery (abbreviated as LIB) is a type of in which move from the negative to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an lithium as one electrode material, compared to the lithium used in a. The, which allows for, and the two electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion. Lithium-ion batteries are common in. They are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries for, with a high, tiny and low. LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, and applications. For example, lithium-ion batteries are becoming a common replacement for the that have been used historically for golf carts and utility vehicles.

Instead of heavy lead plates and acid, the trend is to use lightweight lithium-ion that can provide the same voltage as lead-acid batteries, so no modification to the vehicle's drive system is required. Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types. Handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on ( LiCoO 2), which offers high energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. ( LiFePO 4), ( LiMn 2O 4, Li 2MnO 3, or ) and ( LiNiMnCoO 2 or NMC) offer lower energy density, but longer lives and less likelihood of unfortunate events in real world use, (e.g., fire, explosion.).

Such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment, and other roles. NMC in particular is a leading contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide ( LiNiCoAlO 2 or NCA) and ( Li 4Ti 5O 12 or LTO) are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles. The newer promise the highest performance-to-weight ratio. Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a flammable electrolyte and may be kept pressurized. An expert notes 'If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires'.

Graphenea is a leading graphene company. Graphenea awarded ISO 9001 certificate for Quality Management System. Supercapacitors, batteries, membranes.

Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, requiring both a broader range of test conditions and additional battery-specific tests. There have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 for battery fires. Research areas for lithium-ion batteries include life extension, energy density, safety, and cost reduction, among others. However, as both energy density and economy of scale have reached their maximum, the industrial attention along with the market demand is to increase the charging speed with a practical target of under 1 min (a of 60C). Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Terminology [ ] Battery versus cell [ ] International industry standards differentiate between a 'cell' and a 'battery'. A 'cell' is a basic electrochemical unit that contains the electrodes, separator, and electrolyte. A 'battery' or ' is a collection of cells or cell assemblies which are ready for use, as it contains an appropriate housing, electrical interconnections, and possibly electronics to control and protect the cells from failure.

('Failure' in this case is used in the engineering sense and may include thermal runaway, fire, and explosion as well as more benign events such as loss of charge capacity.) In this regard, the simplest 'battery' is a single cell. For example,, may have a battery system of 400 V, made of many individual cells. The term 'module' is often used, where a battery pack is made of modules, and modules are composed of individual cells. Anode, cathode, electrode [ ] In electrochemistry, the is the electrode where is taking place in the battery, i.e. Electrons get free and flow out of the battery (technical current flowing into it).

However, this happens on opposite electrodes during charge vs. The less ambiguous terms are positive (cathode on discharge) and negative (anode on discharge). This is the positive-negative polarity which is displayed on a volt meter. For rechargeable cells, the term 'cathode' designates the positive electrode in the discharge cycle, even when the associated electrochemical reactions change their places when charging and discharging, respectively.

For lithium-ion cells the positive electrode ('cathode') is the lithium based one. Lithium-ion battery,,, Germany were proposed by British chemist, now at, while working for in the 1970s. Whittingham used titanium(IV) sulfide and lithium metal as the electrodes. However, this rechargeable lithium battery could never be made practical. Titanium disulfide was a poor choice, since it has to be synthesized under completely sealed conditions, also being quite expensive (~$1000 per kilogram for titanium disulfide raw material in 1970s). When exposed to air, titanium disulfide reacts to form hydrogen sulfide compounds, which have an unpleasant odour and are toxic to most animals.

For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued development of Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery. Bangladesh An Untold Story By Sharif Ul Haq Pdf Converter. Batteries with metallic lithium electrodes presented safety issues, as is a highly reactive element; it burns in normal atmospheric conditions because of spontaneous reactions with water and oxygen. As a result, research moved to develop batteries in which, instead of metallic lithium, only lithium are present, being capable of accepting and releasing lithium ions. Reversible and intercalation into cathodic oxides was discovered during 1974-76 by J. Besenhard proposed its application in lithium cells. Electrolyte decomposition and solvent co-intercalation into graphite were severe early drawbacks for battery life. • 1973 – Proposes the lithium thionyl chloride battery, still used in implanted medical devices and in defense systems where greater than a 20-year shelf life, high energy density, or extreme operating temperatures are encountered.

• 1977 – Samar Basu demonstrated electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite at the. This led to the development of a workable lithium intercalated graphite electrode at ( LiC 6) to provide an alternative to the lithium metal electrode battery. • 1979 – Working in separate groups, at Stanford University Ned A. Godshall et al., and the following year in 1980 at, England, and, both demonstrated a rechargeable lithium cell with voltage in the 4 V range using ( LiCoO 2) as the positive electrode and lithium metal as the negative electrode. This innovation provided the positive electrode material that made lithium batteries commercially possible. LiCoO 2 is a stable positive electrode material which acts as a donor of lithium ions, which means that it can be used with a negative electrode material other than lithium metal. [ ] By enabling the use of stable and easy-to-handle negative electrode materials, LiCoO 2 opened a whole new range of possibilities for novel rechargeable battery systems.

Godshall et al. Further identified in 1979, along with LiCoO 2, the similar value of ternary compound lithium-transition metal-oxides such as the LiMn 2O 4, Li 2MnO 3, LiMnO 2, LiFeO 2, LiFe 5O 8, and LiFe 5O 4 (and later lithium-copper-oxide and lithium-nickel-oxide cathode materials in 1985) • 1980 – demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite. The organic electrolytes available at the time would decompose during charging with a graphite negative electrode, slowing the development of a rechargeable lithium/graphite battery.

Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly intercalated in graphite through an electrochemical mechanism. (As of 2011, the graphite electrode discovered by Yazami is the most commonly used electrode in commercial lithium ion batteries). • 1982 – Godshall et al. Were awarded the U.S.

Patent on the use of LiCoO 2 as cathodes in lithium batteries, based on Godshall's Stanford University Ph.D. Thesis Dissertation and 1979 publications. • 1983 –,, and coworkers further developed as a positive electrode material, after its 1979 identification as such by Godshall et al. In 1979 (above). Spinel showed great promise, given its low-cost, good electronic and lithium, and three-dimensional structure, which gives it good structural stability. Although pure manganese spinel fades with cycling, this can be overcome with chemical modification of the material.

As of 2013, manganese spinel was used in commercial cells. • 1985 – assembled a prototype cell using carbonaceous material into which lithium ions could be inserted as one electrode, and lithium cobalt oxide ( LiCoO 2), which is stable in air, as the other. By using materials without metallic lithium, safety was dramatically improved. LiCoO 2 enabled industrial-scale production and represents the birth of the current lithium-ion battery. • 1989 – and Arumugam Manthiram of the showed that positive electrodes containing, e.g.,, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the effect of the polyanion.

There were two main trends in the research and development of electrode materials for lithium ion rechargeable batteries. One was the approach from the field of electrochemistry centering on graphite intercalation compounds, and the other was the approach from the field of new nano-carbonaceous materials. The negative electrode of today’s lithium ion rechargeable battery has its origins in PAS (polyacenic semiconductive material) discovered by Tokio Yamabe and later by Shjzukuni Yata in the early 1980s. The seed of this technology, furthermore, was the discovery of conductive polymers by Professor and his group, and it could also be seen as having started from the polyacetylene lithium ion battery developed by and et al.

Commercial production [ ] The performance and capacity of lithium-ion batteries increases as development progresses. • 1991 – and released the first commercial lithium-ion battery. • 1996 –, Akshaya Padhi and coworkers proposed ( LiFePO 4) and other phospho- (lithium metal phosphates with the same structure as mineral ) as positive electrode materials. • 2001 – Zhonghua Lu and file a patent for the lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) class of positive electrode materials, which offers safety and energy density improvements over the widely used lithium cobalt oxide. • 2002 – Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material's conductivity by it with, and. The exact mechanism causing the increase became the subject of widespread debate.

• 2004 – Chiang again increased performance by utilizing particles of less than 100 nanometers in diameter. This decreased particle density almost one hundredfold, increased the positive electrode's surface area and improved capacity and performance. Commercialization led to a rapid growth in the market for higher capacity LIBs, as well as a patent infringement battle between Chiang and. • 2011 – lithium-ion batteries accounted for 66% of all portable secondary (i.e., rechargeable) battery sales in Japan. • 2012 –, and received the 2012 Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium ion battery.

• 2014 – commercial batteries from Amprius Corp. Reached 650 / (a 20% increase), using a silicon anode and were delivered to customers. The recognized, Yoshio Nishi, and for their pioneering efforts in the field. As of 2016, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 28 gigawatt-hours, with 16.4 GWh in China.

Market [ ] Industry produced about 660 million cylindrical lithium-ion cells in 2012; the size is by far the most popular for cylindrical cells. If meets its goal of shipping 40,000 in 2014 and if the 85-kWh battery, which uses 7,104 of these cells, proves as popular overseas as it was in the U.S., in 2014 the Model S alone would use almost 40 percent of global cylindrical battery production. Production is gradually shifting to higher-capacity 3,000+ mAh cells. Annual flat polymer cell demand was expected to exceed 700 million in 2013. In 2015 cost estimates ranged from $300–500/kwh.

In 2016 GM revealed they will be paying $145 / kWh for the batteries in the Chevy Bolt EV. Price-fixing conspiracy [ ] Information came to light in 2011 regarding a long-term violating price-fixing conspiracy among the world's major lithium-ion battery manufacturers that kept prices artificially high from 2000 to 2011, according to a class action complaint that was tentatively settled with one of the defendants, Sony, in 2016. The complaint provided evidence that participants included,,,,, and, and notes that Sanyo and LG had 'pled guilty to the criminal price-fixing of Lithium Ion Batteries'. Sony agreed to settle for $20 million, and also cooperate by, among other things, making employees chosen by plaintiffs available for interviews, depositions and testimony, as well as provide clarifying information regarding the scheme and the documents provided to date, including responding to authentication and clarification questions. Cooperation clause: page 23 – 25. Construction [ ].

An 18650 size lithium ion battery, with an alkaline AA for scale. 18650 are used for example in notebooks or The three primary functional components of a lithium-ion battery are the positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte.

Generally, the negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is made from. The positive electrode is a metal, and the is a in an.

The electrochemical roles of the electrodes reverse between anode and cathode, depending on the direction of current flow through the cell. The most commercially popular negative electrode is. The positive electrode is generally one of three materials: a layered (such as ), a (such as ) or a (such as lithium ). Recently, graphene based electrodes (based on 2D and 3D structures of graphene) have also been used as electrodes for lithium batteries. The electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as or containing of lithium ions.

These non- electrolytes generally use non-coordinating anion salts such as lithium hexafluorophosphate ( LiPF 6), lithium hexafluoroarsenate monohydrate ( LiAsF 6), lithium perchlorate ( LiClO 4), lithium tetrafluoroborate ( LiBF 4), and lithium triflate ( LiCF 3SO 3). Depending on materials choices, the,, life, and safety of a lithium-ion battery can change dramatically. Recently, using have been employed to improve performance.

Pure lithium is highly. It reacts vigorously with water to form and gas. Thus, a non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes moisture from the battery pack. Lithium-ion batteries are more expensive than batteries but operate over a wider temperature range with higher energy densities.

They require a protective circuit to limit peak voltage. For notebooks or laptops, lithium-ion cells are supplied as part of a with temperature sensors,, voltage tap, battery charge state monitor and the main connector. These components monitor the state of charge and current in and out of each cell, capacities of each individual cell (drastic change can lead to reverse polarities which is dangerous), [ ] and temperature of each cell and minimize the risk of. A lithium-ion battery from a computer (176 kJ) Batteries gradually self-discharge even if not connected and delivering current.

Li+ rechargeable batteries have a rate typically stated by manufacturers to be 1.5-2% per month. The rate increases with temperature and state of charge. A 2004 study found that for most cycling conditions self-discharge was primarily time-dependent; however, after several months of stand on open circuit or float charge, state-of-charge dependent losses became significant. The self-discharge rate did not increase monotonically with state-of-charge, but dropped somewhat at intermediate states of charge.

Self-discharge rates may increase as batteries age. In 1999, self-discharge per month was measured at 8% at 21 °C, 15% at 40 °C, 31% at 60 °C. By 2007, monthly self-discharge rate was estimated at 2% to 3%, and 2 -3% by 2016. By comparison, the self-discharge rate for metal hydride (NiMH) batteries dropped, as of 2017, from 30% per month for previously common cells to about 1.25% per month for batteries, and is about 10% per month in nickel-cadmium batteries. [ ] Battery life [ ] Rechargeable battery life is typically defined as the number of full charge-discharge cycles before significant capacity loss. Inactive storage may also reduce capacity. Manufacturers' information typically specify lifespan in terms of the number of cycles (e.g., capacity dropping linearly to 80% over 500 cycles), with no mention of chronological age.

On average, lifetimes consist of 1000 cycles, although battery performance is rarely specified for more than 500 cycles. This means that batteries of mobile phones, or other hand-held devices in daily use, are not expected to last longer than three years. Some batteries based on carbon anodes offer more than 10,000 cycles.

As a battery discharges, its voltage gradually diminishes. When below the protection circuit's low-voltage threshold (2.4 to 2.9 V/cell, depending on chemistry) the circuit disconnects and stops discharging until recharged. As discharge progresses, metallic cell contents plate onto its internal structure, creating an unwanted discharge path. [ ] Defining battery life via full discharge cycles, is the industry standard, but may be biased, since full depth of discharge (DoD)/recharge may itself diminish battery life, compared to cumulative Ah partial discharge/charge performance. Projection from the standard to specific use patterns may require additional factors, e.g. DoD, rate of discharge, temperature, etc.

Multiplying the battery life (at rated cycle depth) by the capacity gives a total energy delivered over the life of the battery. From this one can calculate the cost per kWh of the power (including the cost of charging). This value reveals that battery power is currently expensive compared to other power sources. Variability [ ] A 2015 study by Andreas Gutsch of the found that lithium-ion battery lifespan could vary by a factor of five, with some Li-ion cells losing 30% of their capacity after 1,000 cycles, and others having better capacity after 5,000 cycles. The study also found that safety standards for some batteries were not met. For stationary energy storage it was estimated that batteries with lifespans of at least 3,000 cycles were needed for profitable operation. [citation needed] Degradation [ ] Over their lifespan, batteries degrade progressively with reduced capacity, cycle life, and safety due to chemical changes to the electrodes.

Capacity loss/fade is expressed as a percentage of initial capacity after a number of cycles (e.g., 30% loss after 1,000 cycles). Fade can be separated into calendar loss and cycling loss. Calendar loss results from the passage of time and is measured from the maximum state of charge. Cycling loss is due to usage and depends on both the maximum state of charge and the depth of discharge. Increased rate of self-discharge can be an indicator of internal. Degradation is strongly temperature-dependent; increasing if stored or used at higher temperatures.

High charge levels and elevated temperatures (whether from charging or ambient air) hasten. Carbon anodes generate heat when in use. Batteries may be refrigerated to reduce temperature effects. [ ] Pouch and cylindrical cell temperatures depend linearly on the discharge current.

Poor internal ventilation may increase temperatures. Loss rates vary by temperature: 6% loss at 0 °C (32 °F), 20% at 25 °C (77 °F), and 35% at 40 °C (104 °F). In contrast, the calendar life of cells is not affected by high charge states.

The advent of the SEI layer improved performance, but increased vulnerability to thermal degradation. The layer is composed of electrolyte – carbonate reduction products that serve both as an ionic conductor and electronic insulator. It forms on both the anode and cathode and determines many performance parameters.

Under typical conditions, such as room temperature and the absence of charge effects and contaminants, the layer reaches a fixed thickness after the first charge, allowing the device to operate for years. However, operation outside such parameters can degrade the device via several reactions.

Reactions [ ] Five common exothermic degradation reactions can occur: • Chemical reduction of the electrolyte by the anode. • Thermal decomposition of the electrolyte. • Chemical oxidation of the electrolyte by the cathode.

• Thermal decomposition by the cathode and anode. • Internal short circuit by charge effects. Anode [ ] The SEI layer that forms on the anode is a mixture of lithium oxide, and semicarbonates (e.g., lithium alkyl carbonates). At elevated temperatures, alkyl carbonates in the electrolyte decompose into insoluble that increases film thickness, limiting anode efficiency.

This increases cell impedance and reduces capacity. Gases formed by electrolyte decomposition can increase the cell's internal pressure and are a potential safety issue in demanding environments such as mobile devices. Extended storage can trigger an incremental increase in film thickness and capacity loss. Charging at greater than 4.2 V can initiate Li + plating on the anode, producing irreversible capacity loss. The randomness of the metallic lithium embedded in the anode during intercalation results in formation. Over time the dendrites can accumulate and pierce the separator, causing a leading to heat, fire or explosion.

This process is referred to as. Discharging beyond 2 V can also result in capacity loss. The (copper) anode current collector can dissolve into the electrolyte.

When charged, copper ions can reduce on the anode as metallic copper. Over time, copper dendrites can form and cause a short in the same manner as lithium. High cycling rates and state of charge induces mechanical strain on the anode's graphite lattice.

Mechanical strain caused by intercalation and de-intercalation creates fissures and splits of the graphite particles, changing their orientation. This orientation change results in capacity loss.

Electrolytes [ ] Electrolyte degradation mechanisms include hydrolysis and thermal decomposition. At concentrations as low as 10 ppm, water begins catalyzing a host of degradation products that can affect the electrolyte, anode and cathode. LiPF 6 participates in an equilibrium reaction with LiF and PF 5. Under typical conditions, the equilibrium lies far to the left. However the presence of water generates substantial LiF, an insoluble, electronically insulating product.

LiF binds to the anode surface, increasing film thickness. LiPF 6 hydrolysis yields PF 5, a strong that reacts with electron-rich species, such as water. PF 5 reacts with water to form (HF) and.

Phosphorus oxyfluoride in turn reacts to form additional HF and difluorohydroxy. HF converts the rigid SEI film into a fragile one. On the cathode, the carbonate solvent can then diffuse onto the cathode oxide over time, releasing heat and thermal runaway. Decomposition of electrolyte salts and interactions between the salts and solvent start at as low as 70 C. Significant decomposition occurs at higher temperatures. At 85 C products, such as dimethyl-2,5-dioxahexane carboxylate (DMDOHC) are formed from EC reacting with DMC.

Cathode [ ] ( LiCoO 2) is the most widely used cathode material. Lithium manganese oxide ( LiMn2O 4) is a potential alternative because of its low cost and ease of preparation, but its relatively poor cycling and storage capabilities has prevented it from commercial acceptance. Cathode degradation mechanisms include manganese dissolution, electrolyte oxidation and structural disorder. In LiMnO 4 hydrofluoric acid catalyzes the loss of metallic manganese through disproportionation of trivalent manganese: 2Mn 3+ → Mn 2++ Mn 4+ Material loss of the spinel results in capacity fade. Temperatures as low as 50 C initiate Mn 2+ deposition on the anode as metallic manganese with the same effects as lithium and copper plating. Cycling over the theoretical max and min voltage plateaus destroys the via, which occurs when Mn 4+ is reduced to Mn 3+ during discharge. Storage of a battery charged to greater than 3.6 V initiates electrolyte oxidation by the cathode and induces SEI layer formation on the cathode.

As with the anode, excessive SEI formation forms an insulator resulting in capacity fade and uneven current distribution. Storage at less than 2 V results in the slow degradation of LiCoO 2 and LiMn 2O 4 cathodes, the release of oxygen and irreversible capacity loss. Conditioning [ ] The need to 'condition' and batteries has leaked into folklore surrounding Li-ion batteries, but is unfounded.

The recommendation for the older technologies is to leave the device plugged in for seven or eight hours, even if fully charged. This may be a confusion of battery software calibration instructions with the 'conditioning' instructions for NiCd and NiMH batteries. Multicell devices [ ] Li-ion batteries require a to prevent operation outside each cell's (max-charge, min-charge, safe temperature range) and to balance cells to eliminate mismatches. This significantly improves battery efficiency and increases capacity. As the number of cells and load currents increase, the potential for mismatch increases. The two kinds of mismatch are state-of-charge (SOC) and capacity/energy ('C/E'). Though SOC is more common, each problem limits pack charge capacity (mAh) to that of the weakest cell.

See also: and If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer and cell rupture. In extreme cases this can lead to leakage, explosion or fire. To reduce these risks, many lithium-ion cells (and battery packs) contain fail-safe circuitry that disconnects the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range of 3–4.2 V per cell. Or when overcharged or discharged.

Lithium battery packs, whether constructed by a vendor or the end-user, without effective battery management circuits are susceptible to these issues. Poorly designed or implemented battery management circuits also may cause problems; it is difficult to be certain that any particular battery management circuitry is properly implemented.

Lithium-ion cells are susceptible to damage outside the allowed voltage range that is typically within (2.5 to 3.65) V for most LFP cells. Exceeding this voltage range, even by small voltages (millivolts) results in premature aging of the cells and, furthermore, results in safety risks due to the reactive components in the cells. When stored for long periods the small current draw of the protection circuitry may drain the battery below its shutoff voltage; normal chargers may then be useless since the BMS may retain a record of this battery (or charger) 'failure'.

Many types of lithium-ion cells cannot be charged safely below 0 °C. Other safety features are required in each cell: • Shut-down separator (for overheating) • Tear-away tab (for internal pressure relief) • Vent (pressure relief in case of severe outgassing) • Thermal interrupt (overcurrent/overcharging/environmental exposure) These features are required because the negative electrode produces heat during use, while the positive electrode may produce oxygen. However, these additional devices occupy space inside the cells, add points of failure, and may irreversibly disable the cell when activated. Further, these features increase costs compared to nickel metal hydride batteries, which require only a hydrogen/oxygen recombination device and a back-up pressure valve. Contaminants inside the cells can defeat these safety devices. Also, these features can not be applied to all kinds of cells, e.g. Prismatic high current cells cannot be equipped with a vent or thermal interrupt.

High current cells must not produce excessive heat or oxygen, lest there be a failure, possibly violent. Instead, they must be equipped with internal thermal fuses which act before the anode and cathode reach their thermal limits. A battery will cause the cell to overheat and possibly to catch fire. Adjacent cells may then overheat and fail, possibly causing the entire battery to ignite or rupture. In the event of a fire, the device may emit dense irritating smoke. The fire energy content (electrical + chemical) of cobalt-oxide cells is about 100 to 150 kJ/(), most of it chemical. [ ] Replacing the positive electrode material in lithium-ion batteries with a lithium metal phosphate such as lithium iron phosphate improves cycle counts, shelf life and safety, but lowers capacity.

As of 2006 these 'safer' lithium-ion batteries were mainly used in and other large-capacity battery applications, where safety is critical. Lithium-ion batteries, unlike rechargeable batteries with water-based electrolytes, have a potentially hazardous pressurised flammable liquid electrolyte, and require strict quality control during manufacture. A faulty battery can cause a serious.

Faulty chargers can affect the safety of the battery because they can destroy the battery's protection circuit. While charging at temperatures below 0 °C, the negative electrode of the cells gets plated with pure lithium, which can compromise the safety of the whole pack. While fire is often serious, it may be catastrophically so. In about 2010 large lithium-ion batteries were introduced in place of other chemistries to power systems on some aircraft; as of January 2014 there had been at least four serious passenger aircraft, introduced in 2011, which did not cause crashes but had the potential to do so. In addition, several aircraft crashes have been attributed to burning Li-Ion batteries. Crashed in after its payload of batteries spontaneously ignited, progressively destroying critical systems inside the aircraft which eventually rendered it uncontrollable. Environmental concerns and recycling [ ] Since Li-ion batteries contain less of than other types of batteries which may contain lead or cadmium they are generally categorized as non-hazardous waste.

Li-ion battery elements including iron, copper, nickel and cobalt are considered safe for and. These metals can be, but mining generally remains cheaper than recycling. At present, not much is invested into recycling Li-ion batteries due to cost, complexity and low yield. The most expensive metal involved in the construction of the cell is cobalt.

Lithium iron phosphate is cheaper but has other drawbacks. Is less expensive than other metals used, but recycling could prevent a future shortage. The manufacturing processes of nickel and cobalt, and the solvent, present potential environmental and health hazards. Manufacturing a kg of Li-ion battery takes energy equivalent to 1.6 kg of oil. Recalls [ ] • In October 2004 recalled approximately 1 million mobile phone batteries to identify. • In December 2005 recalled approximately 22,000 batteries, and 4.1 million in August 2006.

• In 2006 approximately 10 million Sony batteries used in Dell,,, Lenovo,,,, and laptops were recalled. The batteries were found to be susceptible to internal contamination by metal particles during manufacture.

Under some circumstances, these particles could pierce the separator, causing a dangerous short-circuit. • In March 2007 computer manufacturer recalled approximately 205,000 batteries at risk of explosion. • In August 2007 mobile phone manufacturer recalled over 46 million batteries at risk of overheating and exploding. One such incident occurred in the involving a, which used the BL-5C battery.

• In September 2016 recalled approximately 2.5 million Galaxy Note 7 phones after 35 confirmed fires. The recall was due to a manufacturing design fault in Samsung's batteries which caused internal positive and negative poles to touch. Transport restrictions [ ]. Japan Airlines Boeing 787 lithium cobalt oxide battery estimates that over a billion lithium cells are flown each year.

The maximum size of each battery (whether installed in a device or as spare batteries) that can be carried is one that has an equivalent lithium content (ELC) not exceeding 8 grammes per battery. Except, that if only one or two batteries are carried, each may have an ELC of not more than 25 grammes each. The ELC for any battery is found by multiplying the ampere-hour capacity of each cell by 0.3 and then multiplying the result by the number of cells in the battery. The resultant calculated lithium content is not the actual lithium content but a theoretical figure solely for transportation purposes. When shipping lithium ion batteries however, if the total lithium content in the cell exceeds 1.5 g, the package must be marked as 'Class 9 miscellaneous hazardous material'. Although devices containing lithium-ion batteries may be transported in checked baggage, spare batteries may be only transported in carry-on baggage.

They must be protected against short circuiting, and example tips are provided in the transport regulations on safe packaging and carriage; e.g., such batteries should be in their original protective packaging or, 'by taping over the exposed terminals or placing each battery in a separate plastic bag or protective pouch'. These restriction do not apply to a lithium-ion battery that is a part of a wheelchair or mobility aid (including any spare batteries) to which a separate set of rules and regulations apply.

Some postal administrations restrict air shipping (including ) of lithium and lithium-ion batteries, either separately or installed in equipment. Such restrictions apply in, Australia and. Other postal administrations, such as the United Kingdom's may permit limited carriage of batteries or cells that are operative but totally prohibit handling of known defective ones, which is likely to prove of significance to those discovering faulty such items bought through mail-order channels. The provides details in its document which the Royal Mail makes available. On 16 May 2012, the (USPS) banned shipping anything containing a lithium battery to an overseas address, after fires from transport of batteries. This restriction made it difficult to send anything containing lithium batteries to military personnel overseas, as the USPS was the only method of shipment to these addresses; the ban was lifted on 15 November 2012. And excluded lithium-ion batteries in 2015 after an FAA report on chain reactions.

The uses large batteries, which are more than newer types of batteries such as LiFePO 4. Research [ ].

Main article: Researchers are actively working to improve the power density, safety, cycle durability (battery life), recharge time, cost, flexibility, and other characteristics, as well as research methods and uses, of these batteries. • Researchers at IBM India have come up with an experimental power supply using lithium-ion cells from discarded laptop battery packs for use in unelectrified regions in developing nations. • In November 2016, Yasunaga, a Japanese battery manufacturer, revealed that they had developed a special positive electrode surface treatment which would allow the battery to have more than twelve times the cycle life of conventional lithium-ion batteries.

Batteries were tested to 60,000 to 102,400 cycles before falling to 70% of the original new capacity, compared to the conventional battery that would only do 5000 to 6000 cycles. This technology also showed 12% reduction in cell resistance. Yasunaga also commented that the life is expected to be even longer when the same technology is applied to negative electrodes. • In March 2017, American Lithium Energy in California revealed plans for mass marketing of its branded Safe Core technology that was developed for use by the US Department of Defense, Department of Energy and national research labs. The technology was initially devoted to vehicle batteries that would not catch fire if damaged in a crash and led to bullet-safe batteries for troops. 'What we did was put a fuse inside the cell, so when something is wrong inside, our fuse will kick in and break the current [before it reaches a critical temperature] and then the battery will be safe,' said Jiang Fan, PhD, founder and chief technology officer for the company. Fan also provided a useful perspective on lithium-ion development.

'As people try to put more energy into the cell, they end up making compromises. Each one is just a little compromise in terms of safety, but it makes the whole system less robust.

So the level of manufacturing defects (the battery) can withstand is lower.' See also [ ] • • • • • • • • • • • (LIC) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •, crashed, fire caused by Lithium-ion batteries.

This utility upgrades the Blu-ray Disc player firmware to version 014, and provides the following benefits: Improvements over firmware version 011: • Improves disc playability Benefits provided by previous upgrades and included in version 014 • Improves BD-ROM playability • Improves compatibility to enhance interactivity with some BD-ROMs • Adds support for using an external USB hard drive for BD-Live functions Note: Sony recommends using the for BD-Live functions. • Use of this hard drive with the Blu-ray Disc player is intended only for BD-Live functions.

• Sony cannot guarantee that other external USB hard drives will support the BD-Live functions. BD-Live Notes • BD-Live allows you to enjoy additional content and services while playing a BD-Live capable disc. • For optimal performance, we recommend that you use a Broadband Internet connection to access BD-Live content and services. • BD-Live content and services require an external USB storage device for local storage.

• Power on the television and make sure it is tuned to the inputs to which the Blu-ray Disc player is connected. • Power on the Blu-ray Disc player. • If the player starts to play a disc, press the 'STOP' button and wait until the xross media bar™ menu is displayed on the television before proceeding. • Use the arrow keys on the remote control to select 'Setup' – 'System Settings', and then press the ENTER button. • Use the arrow keys to select 'System Information', and then press the ENTER button. • The firmware version currently installed on the Blu-ray Disc player will be listed on the television screen. If the last three digits of the version number are 014 or higher, it is not necessary to install this firmware upgrade.

There are three ways to obtain the Blu-ray Disc player firmware upgrade: • Network Upgrade: • The Network Upgrade operation is straightforward, so it is highly recommended that you use the Network Upgrade method. • You will need to connect the Blu-ray Disc player to your Internet source using an Ethernet cable.

• Please see the section below, for more information. • Create an Upgrade Disc: • If you cannot connect the Blu-ray Disc player to your Internet source, please use the disc upgrade method. • Please click the Download Now link at the top or bottom of this page to download the firmware upgrade.

• Please see the section below, for more information. • A drive with CD disc burning capability, and a new blank CD-R disc are required to create the upgrade disc. • Request an Upgrade Disc • If you cannot connect the Blu-ray Disc player to your Internet source, please use the disc upgrade method. • If you are unable to create the upgrade disc you can purchase one from the. • After you receive the disc, please see the section below, for more information. If you have questions or require assistance, please contact Sony Support at 1-866-909-SONY (7669).

The Network Upgrade operation is straightforward, so it is highly recommended that you use the Network Upgrade method to upgrade the Blu-ray Disc player firmware. • Important Notes • If you have not done so already, please to determine if this firmware upgrade is needed for your Blu-ray Disc player. Please follow the upgrade instructions carefully. Failure to follow the instructions may interrupt the upgrade process and may cause the Blu-ray Disc player to be unresponsive or to require repair.

Do not power off the Blu-ray Disc player or disconnect it from the AC power outlet. Loss of power during the installation of the firmware upgrade may cause the Blu-ray Disc player to be unresponsive or to require repair. • In order to use this upgrade method it is necessary to have the player correctly connected to an active Internet connection. Note: If you cannot connect the player to your Internet source, please see the section above for information about firmware upgrade disc options. • In order to perform the firmware upgrade, it is necessary to have the player correctly connected to a compatible television. • It is highly recommended that you print out these instructions for use as a reference during the installation process.

• Firmware Upgrade Instructions WARNING!! Please follow the upgrade instructions carefully. Failure to follow the instructions may interrupt the upgrade process and may cause the Blu-ray Disc player to be unresponsive or to require repair. Note: The firmware upgrade process usually takes about 15 to 30 minutes, depending on system configuration and network connection. • Power on the television and make sure it is tuned to the inputs to which the Blu-ray Disc player is connected. • Connect the 'LAN(100)' terminal on the player to your Internet source using an Ethernet cable.

• Power on the Blu-ray Disc player. • If there is a disc in the player, please remove the disc. • At the xross media bar™ menu, use the arrow keys on the remote control to select 'Setup' - 'Network Update' and then press the ENTER button.

• The message 'Perform version update?' Is displayed on the television.

• Select 'OK' and then press the ENTER button. • The download process starts and the download screen is displayed on the television. • During the download the message 'DL */9' is displayed on the television and on the player front display. Note: The '*' changes to '0' through '9,' indicating the download progress.

• After the download is complete, the upgrade starts and 'VUP' appears on the player front panel display. • While the upgrade is installed the message 'VUP */9' is displayed on the player front display.

Note: The '*' changes to '0' through '9,' indicating the upgrade progress. • The firmware upgrade is complete when 'FINISH' appears on the player front panel display. Do not operate or power off the player until this message is displayed. Doing so may cause the Blu-ray Disc player to be unresponsive or to require repair. • The Blu-ray Disc player will automatically power off. • Power on the Blu-ray Disc player • to confirm that the upgrade has successfully installed. Note: If the last three digits of the version number are 014, the firmware upgrade was successful.

If you have questions or require assistance, please contact Sony Support at 1-866-909-SONY (7669). • Network Firmware Upgrade FAQ Q: 'SYS ERR' or 'VUP NG' is displayed on the player front panel display.

A: Please perform the following procedure: • Push and hold the 'POWER' button on the player for several seconds until the player powers off. • Power on the Blu-ray Disc player. • Follow the again. If the issue persists after performing the upgrade again, please contact Sony Support at 1-866-909-SONY (7669). Q: When running network upgrade, the television displays the message, 'Connection status cannot be confirmed' and you cannot perform the firmware upgrade. A: There may be a problem with the network connection.

Verify that the network connection and settings are correct. • Check the Ethernet cable to make sure it is securely connected to the 'LAN(100)' terminal on the player and to the Internet source. • Check the Blu-ray Disc player network settings and confirm that the player has its own IP address. Note: If you use a proxy server, enter the IP address of the proxy server you use, instead of the proxy host name, in the 'Proxy Server' input field. • Follow the again. Q: The power was shut down during the upgrade process. A: Power on the Blu-ray Disc player, and then follow the again.

Q: The network upgrade process has two parts, first the download and then the upgrade. If, after the download part is finished, the firmware upgrade process is still not finished after running after more than 30 minutes. A: Please contact Sony Support at 1-866-909-SONY (7669). If you cannot connect the Blu-ray Disc player to your Internet source, please use the disc upgrade method. • Important Notes • If you have not done so already, please to determine if this firmware upgrade is needed for your Blu-ray Disc player.

• If you are unable to create the upgrade disc, you can purchase one from the. Please follow the upgrade instructions carefully. Failure to follow the instructions may interrupt the upgrade process and may cause the Blu-ray Disc player to be unresponsive or to require repair. Do not power off the Blu-ray Disc player or disconnect it from the AC power outlet.

Loss of power during the installation of the firmware upgrade may cause the Blu-ray Disc player to be unresponsive or to require repair. • Use a brand new CD-R disc to burn the firmware upgrade. The player may not be able to correctly read a dirty disc or a disc with scratches. Note: A CD-R disc is strongly recommended. Do not use a CD-RW disc. • Recommended operating system for the computer that will download the firmware upgrade: • Microsoft® Windows® 10 • Microsoft® Windows® 8.1 • Microsoft® Windows® 8 • Microsoft® Windows® 7 • Microsoft® Windows Vista® • Microsoft® Windows® XP • A drive with CD disc burning capability, and a new blank CD-R disc are required to create the upgrade disc. • After you receive the disc, please see the section below, for more information.

• In order to perform the firmware upgrade, it is necessary to have the player correctly connected to a compatible television. • It is highly recommended that you print out these instructions for use as a reference during the installation process. • Download and Disc Creation Instructions • Download the UPDATA_11X014.ZIP file to a temporary or download directory (please note this directory for reference). • Go to the directory where the file was downloaded and verify that the size of the UPDATA_11X014.ZIP file is 50,436,039 bytes.

• Right-click the UPDATA_11X014.ZIP file, and click 'Properties'. • On the 'UPDATA_11X014.ZIP Properties' screen, verify that the 'Size:' listed is '48.0 MB (50,436,039 bytes)'. Note: The 'Size on disk:' listed may be different. That is normal. • If the file size is different than the '50,436,039 bytes', please download the UPDATA_11X014.ZIP file again. • Double-click the UPDATA_11X014.ZIP file to extract the firmware files to a temporary directory (please note this directory for reference). Note: Two files will be extracted: BD11-VUD.BIN and SONY_VUP.ID • Write the two extracted files to the root of a CD-R.

Please consult the instructions for your CD writing software for details. • The upgrade disc must be finalized. Be sure to select 'Finalize CD (No further writing possible)' in your CD burning software to finalize the upgrade disc. Note: for instructions on using utilities that came with your operating system. • If write errors occur during the CD burning process, discard the disc and create a new upgrade disc. The instructions below are for how to install the firmware upgrade using a disc. The steps are the same whether you downloaded the firmware and created the disc, or whether you ordered the disc from Sony.

• Firmware Upgrade Instructions WARNING!! Do not power off the player or disconnect it from the AC power outlet. Doing so may damage the player to the point of requiring repair. Do not press any buttons, except as instructed, until the upgrade is complete. Doing so may damage the player to the point of requiring repair. Note: The firmware upgrade process takes a minimum of 30 minutes. • Power on the television and make sure it is tuned to the inputs to which the Blu-ray Disc player is connected.

• Power on the Blu-ray Disc player. • Place the upgrade disc in the player, and close the disc tray. • After the disc is loaded, the message, 'Perform version update?' Is displayed on the television. • Use the remote control to select 'OK', and then press the ENTER button. • The upgrade process starts and 'VUP' appears on the player front panel display. • While the upgrade is installed the message 'VUP */9' is displayed on the player front display.

Note: The '*' changes to '0' through '9,' indicating the upgrade progress. • The firmware upgrade is complete when 'FINISH' appears on the player front panel display. Do not operate or power off the player until this message is displayed.

Doing so may result in your player being unresponsive and requiring repair. • Remove the upgrade disc from the player. • Power on the Blu-ray Disc player.

• to confirm that the upgrade has successfully installed. Note: If the last three digits of the version number are 014, the firmware upgrade was successful.

• If The Upgrade Disc Does Not Eject If the upgrade disc does not eject even though 'FINISH' is displayed, please follow the steps below. • Power off the Blu-ray Disc player, and disconnect the AC power cord. • Reconnect the AC power cord while simultaneously holding down the 'Open/Close' button on the player. Note: Pressing the 'Open/Close' button on the remote control does not work.

Logitech Setpoint Download Linux. It is necessary to press 'Open/Close' button on the Blu-ray Disc player. • Keep pressing the 'Open/Close' button until the disc tray opens. • Remove the disc. Disc Firmware Upgrade FAQ Q: 'SYS ERR' or 'VUP NG' is displayed on the player front panel display.

A: Please perform the following procedure: • Push and hold the 'POWER' button on the player for several seconds until the player powers off. • Power on the Blu-ray Disc player. • Follow the again. If the issue persists after performing the upgrade again, please contact Sony Support at 1-866-909-SONY (7669). Q: 'VUP' is not displayed on the player front panel display when the upgrade disc is inserted. A: Remove the upgrade disc from the player and delete the upgrade files from your computer.

Follow the steps in the section to create a new upgrade disc and then follow the steps in the section to install the firmware upgrade. Q: The power was shut down during the upgrade process. A: Power on the Blu-ray Disc player, and then follow the again. Q: When I double click on the UPDATA_11X014.ZIP upgrade file I downloaded from the upgrade web site, the BD11-VUD.BIN and SONY_VUP.ID files are not created.

A: The download may have failed. Delete the downloaded file and follow the steps in the section to create a new upgrade disc Q: The firmware upgrade process is still not finished after running for more than 30 minutes. A: Please contact Sony Support at 1-866-909-SONY (7669).